The Baroque Period Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Baroque Period - Essay Example The Baroque Era of Music is customarily viewed as the timeframe somewhere in the range of 1580 and 1760. Likewise with other works of art of the period, the Baroque Era of music is noted for its resplendent characteristics. One of the most outstanding music structures coming out of this period was the Opera. In spite of the fact that there were varieties of the Opera all through Europe, including Italy, Germany, England and France, during the Baroque Period, they all contained a few interlocking strings: the luxurious set structures, delightful tunes and expert introduction. The drama was initially planned as a type of diversion for the court and as such as a rule went all out in their set structure and expand outfits. Shows of this timespan utilized â€Å"different ways to deal with singing and adornment (in any event, bowing) and more liberated perspectives toward improvisation.One of the primary concentrations in Baroque style music was simply the expressiveness of the time was c ommunicated so wonderful in the music of this timeframe †striking, well-spoken and free streaming. â€Å"There are individuals - on-screen characters, ministers, and open speakers, vocalists - called upon to utilize their voices out in the open spaces with greater or littler voices. Furthermore, these Baroque authors, Handel for instance, comprehended the human voice presumably like no one preceding or after.† (Giles, 1999, 43). By a wide margin the Baroque Era can be summarized musically, similarly as with the time itself, fantastic. It was bigger that life. The intricate displays were intended to entrain while vocalizing with flare and blaze the greatness of the period. Intriguing consistently; it was connecting and addressing with a style and greatness that must be named is Baroque. This style of music and its very nature, similar to the advancement of antithesis itself during this time was a time of investigation and development with substantial impacts of the congre gation the music was right around a discharge from any cultural considered restrictions. It was opportunity of articulation delightful performed with the twist and striking visual effect, mind boggling melodic frivolity and showy sensation. This period of conceptualizing and pondering had regard for the past yet in addition an eye on what's to come. This was communicated additionally through the abstract works concentrating on one of the creative experts of the timeframe, Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio. Utilizing the curious, questions style epitomized by numerous individuals of the essayists of the Baroque time frame Pino Di Silvestro, the writer, flawlessly rediscovers the abstract energy of the timespan. Like the reestablished development of the significance of the congregation as a substance during this timeframe writing and workmanship denoted a comparable disruption of business as usual is to be found in those of

Disney Losing Magic in the Middle Kingdom Essay Sample free essay sample

Above all else. I unequivocally accepted the significant slip-up submitted by the recreation center was the lack of old looking into about Hong Kong social life. prior to opening the recreation center. At the beggary. executives demanded keeping Disney World’s customs. Not long after its first hole. Hong Kong Disneyland needed to quarrel with infirmities over: variables, for example, the park’s minimal size. awkward area. lack of alone qualities. insufficient supplication to adults and losing Chinese components. It was of import to cognize heretofore some feature of Chinese ordinary life. For example, the enormous going to guardians concentrated on their children guidance and that school childs were occupied about twelvemonth unit of ammo. This is the ground why changing the point of convergence from delight to â€Å"edutaiment† came about a colossal in addition to the viing Ocean Park. Another of import aspect to see was the way that Hong Kong’s individua ls were sick renowned for their anxiety. We will compose a custom exposition test on Disney: Losing Magic in the Middle Kingdom Essay Sample or then again any comparable point explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page they much of the time search for entertainment choices that were helpful. comfortable. quick and modest. In view of this they were hesitant to run alonging in the mood for everything. kicking it was unreasonably packed. Second. the populace was non acquainted with the Disney progress. As they had a solid social singularity of its ain. everyone was responsive to outside and new things. An other than there were non numerous alluring powers to late young people and adults. In spite of the feng shui maestro crowd so as to achieve an amicable domain. Hong Kong Disneyland needed to go up against with a few natural issues. In my slant this illnesses were because of the reality this was an outside organization puting in an entirely unique human progress. This is the reason each individual aspect ought to be continued with more going to than expected. With respect to case. supplement conditions and workers each piece great. Another trademark Hong Kong Disneyland flopped on was offering tickets in cutting edge thus holding to look with the grouching swarm standing by to come in the recreation center. From previously mentioned grounds. I consider that Disney should hold made more research before opening Hong Kong Disneyland. Notwithstanding. once occupations had created. the y ought to in a split second perceive that the solitary way to get by with the situation was non to make concern the American way. be that as it may, the nearby one.

Business Events Management

Presentation The study of occasion the board has become a need in today’s business world. Since occasions are intermittent, legitimate arranging is critical to guarantee that an occasion is effective. Albeit a portion of the plans are superseded by events during the real occasion, arranged occasions are better corresponding to the unrehearsed ones. Occasions the board includes different phases of planning.Advertising We will compose a custom exposition test on Business Events Management explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More Moreover, different assets are vital for various occasions. Furthermore, occasions require a specific level of administration abilities that are important for the usage of the occasion. Individuals require a specific degree of control. Hence, occasions supervisors have an obligation to co-ordinate, sort out, and create working groups. Legitimate, clear, and compact correspondence is basic in occasions the executives. Consistent corresponden ce between occasions supervisors and customers previously, during, and after the occasion is significant. Occasions chiefs are hence accused of the obligation of introducing appropriate correspondence frameworks all through the procedure. This paper examines business occasions the board in the cutting edge business condition. Significance of Planning is a significant ability in levels the executives. Arranging is completed in different stages during occasions the executives. The significance of arranging is to guarantee that the administration isn't up to speed by projections during the genuine occasion. As indicated by Brenner (2009, p.26), with a decent arrangement, the supervisory crew can react rapidly to different events. A very much created and confirmed arrangement will empower the occasion supervisory crew to guarantee better fulfillment of customers’ needs. Different assets that are fundamental for a specific even are likewise conveyed in time. The defers that are se en in the greater part of the occasions are hence wiped out through legitimate arranging. The group isn't gotten uninformed by different requests from clients. A decent arrangement empowers supervisors to anticipate the entire thought in a specific occasion. It is from such an arrangement, that the supervisory group does a deliberate usage of the program. De Snoo, van Wezel, Wortmann, and Gaalman (2011, p. 2101) affirm that plans go about as a source of perspective during the genuine occasion. For example, administrators can utilize it as an agenda for different prerequisites. Arranging will likewise set aside time and cash that occasions take. Time is a significant factor in occasions the board. A decent arrangement empowers organizers to distribute a particular measure of time to specific bits of occasions. This guarantees there is no delaying or potentially stir up of occasions. A decent arrangement gives each segment of the occasion abundant and satisfactory time. Such a program empowers culmination of all parts of the occasion with practically no rush.Advertising Looking for paper on business financial aspects? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Stages of Planning and the necessary Resources Planning of occasions includes different stages. The main phase of occasions arranging is the pre-arranging meeting. This gathering empowers occasions supervisors to acquaint all partners with be associated with the procedure. The pre-arranging stage likewise empowers the group to set principles as well as offer jobs and duties. The group additionally gets a chance to know the individuals and to have them focused on the procedure. De Snoo, van Wezel, Wortmann, and Gaalman (2011, p. 2101) uncover how occasion administrators additionally get a chance to coordinate each members’ abilities with an intrigue. The subsequent advance is the setting of goals. Occasions supervisory group meets to set the destinatio ns of the entire program. Destinations ought to be unequivocal, quantifiable, fulfilling, down to earth, and time explicit. The other advance is setting up the task, which includes the allotment of courses of events and duties. At this stage, the extent of the program is laid out and separated. Occupation region and elaboration to the individual representatives happens at this stage. The following stage in occasion the board is hazard the board. Makda and Bayat (2012, p.62) contend that the group need to evaluate the normal dangers in the entire procedure. Hazard alleviation measures are talked about and set up. The following stage is the observing of the procedure. Observing of the advancement of occasions is a persistent procedure. Soteriades and Dimou (2011, p.371) show how a consistent evaluation guarantees that the time furthest reaches that were set during the underlying stages are met. It is through the appraisal that the administration can function admirably with the supplie rs, for instance providers. It is likewise imperative to screen the advancement of occasions so as to present changes in defense of disappointments. The following stage includes association of the genuine occasion. At this stage, partners are counter checked in the genuine usage of exercises. Each partner is likewise checked to guarantee full execution of the undertaking. The other advance is the usage of the occasion. At this stage, the real movement is actualized. The occasion is run and the administration oversees each progression. As indicated by Brenner (2009, p.26), it is essential to regard the requirements and directions of the customer. At long last, the occasion the board procedure is assessed through a deliberate appraisal. The administrator evaluates the implementers, with the input being utilized to improve the future procedure. Authority Skills and Actions to Administer an Event Events the executives requires certain initiative abilities to actualize. The occasion supe rvisor must have the option to get ready for the entire occasion. As indicated by Soteriades and Dimou (2011, p.371), arranging includes anticipating, estimation, and execution of the financial plan. Hierarchical abilities are additionally required for one to have the option to control as well as move the partners. In an occasions the executives procedure, collaboration is important.Advertising We will compose a custom article test on Business Events Management explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More The pioneer must have the option to demonstrate administration to representatives. Administrative abilities are likewise significant. Occasions directors ought to have the option to manage their staff individuals to guarantee that they propel them towards accomplishing their fantasies. Step by step instructions to Organize and Develop a Team building is significant in occasions the board. Pioneers must guarantee that they fabricate working groups and that the groups are c ooperating. Undertaking pioneers must guide their groups towards cooperating for the achievement of the occasion. Groups are worked through different advances. The venture chief starts by setting up basic targets. During the foundation of normal destinations, all individuals associated with the occasion come concur on what they need to accomplish together with how they will do as such. Group engineers likewise train colleagues. During this preparation, individuals are outfitted with certain significant aptitudes that are essential for the particular occasions that they are to oversee. For instance, if the occasion is social, colleagues are shown different social convictions that they should see in the occasion. In certain networks, a few individuals from the network are not allowed to devour a few pieces of creature meat. The colleagues should hence be sharp while sorting out the menu for the occasion. For instance, they are educated to isolate certain pieces of creature meat for sp ecific individuals. In certain examples, preparing of colleagues includes joining of customers or their agents. Truth be told, if the association is anticipating a nearby government occasion, it needs to prepare its colleagues certain standards that must be seen during the occasion. The following stage is the arrangement of the group with steady correspondence. For an undertaking designer to guarantee that the person in question thinks of a decent group, the person must guarantee appropriate correspondence. Makda and Bayat (2012, p.62) see that the designers need to design and arrange for clear, succinct, exact, and intentional correspondence. Consistently, the colleagues must be outfitted with satisfactory data about the occasion. The group is likewise prepared to be excited. Now, the group developer is likewise expected to be eager. Vitality and power empower the group to work better. Colleagues build up an inclination that other colleagues are likewise progressing in the directio n of accomplishing a comparable objective. All features of the group must cooperate. For instance, there ought to be equivalent interest by all members.Advertising Searching for exposition on business financial aspects? We should check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Find out More Group fabricating likewise embraces the execution of the underlying arrangement as concurred. The group is accused of the power to actualize the occasion the executives plan. As indicated by Richardson and Taylor (2012, p.475), each individual from the execution group should obviously comprehend the execution plan. Appropriate comprehension of the entire picture is significant at this stage. An individual colleague ought to have the option to address their kindred representatives during the time spent executing the program. The group manufacturer additionally perceives the accomplishments of individual colleagues. Acknowledgment and prize are pivotal in spurring colleagues to rehash a specific decent conduct. Similarly, venture chiefs ought to likewise rebuff any terrible conduct as a method of demoralizing it. Discipline is likewise a method of remunerating representatives. For instance, if a colleague is rebuffed through pay derivations, the person will guarantee that the conduct i sn't rehashed. Group manufacturers are additionally expected to continue assessing the achievement and disappointments of the group concessionary. Steady assessment of the group guarantees that the underlying arrangement is actualized in each progression. Assessment will likewise empower the venture engineer to address any mistakes that may occur during the procedure of usage. Significance of Team Coordination and Communication There is a need to have consistent coordination of the group

Life of Pi Spiritual Survival under Physical Stress - Literature Essay Samples

Throughout the novel Life of Pi by Yann Martel, the protagonist, Pi Patel struggles with survival yet manages to maintain a level-headed outlook on his situation. He does not lose his belief in God, in whatever form He may take, although physically he begins to lose hope. He is able to remain rational through believing the irrational. He maintains his humanity throughout the entire novel, and as a result is able to survive both physically and emotionally and eventually be assimilated back into society and normal life. As one’s physical body breaks down, his or her mind automatically turns to survival and only survival. This change in mindset has caused people throughout history to make choices in a time of distress that they otherwise would never have even considered. The body and mind turn to the most basic needs: food, water, and shelter. Basically, anything other than those three essential elements of survival loses precedent in terms of overall priorities in one’s existence. There have been many historical instances where a boat sank and people became stranded, and they turned to cannibalism to survive. One of these cases was the case of Richard Parker, a cabin boy who was eaten by two other crew members after they became stranded in a lifeboat together. That case became famous after the crew members were tried and convicted for murder, and the cabin boy is the partial namesake of the tiger Richard Parker in Life of Pi. Pi has many â€Å"tactics† that he uses during his time at sea in order to maintain his sanity, morals, and humanity. He constantly occupies his brain with a wide range of thoughts, from God to new methods of fishing. He turns to believing the irrational, but instead of allowing it to construe his perception of reality, he uses it as a portal to escape from his current existence, and as a way to occupy his brain with thoughts other than the barbaric thoughts of survival that he is trying to avoid. According to Pi himself, â€Å"Only fear can defeat life,† and so he uses these irrational thoughts and ideas, as well as his love and belief in God, to avoid fear and occupy his days (Martel 161). It is possible that his entire journey was a case of him believing the irrational, as he presents a new story without a tiger after he reaches Mexico. Because he is an introvert and has an ability to occupy himself through only his thoughts, he is able to survive and maintain a sta ble state of mind throughout the ordeal. There are times, as there would be with any human, that Pi’s faith waned and he struggled to uphold his morals. The difference between him and people of other doomed journeys who reverted to things such as cannibalism was that he was able to recognize and immediately put a stop to these moments of barbaric behavior. At one put he recognizes his eating habits are becoming animalistic, and he states, â€Å"It came as an unmistakable indication to me of how low I had sunk the day I noticed, with a pinching of the heart, that I ate like an animal, that was this noisy, frantic, unchewing, wolfing-down of mine was exactly the way Richard Parker ate† (Martel 225). It is said the first step, and the most important, to solving a problem is recognizing it, and Pi is able to recognize this problem of him becoming animalistic, and take steps to solve it. One of his methods for solving this problem is he makes sure that whenever he is forced to eat an animal, he always says a praye r for it before he eats it. This helps him to accept that he is eating a living creature. Although it took him somewhat of a heroic effort, Pi managed to maintain his humanity throughout his journey. His belief not only in God, but also in the irrational, occupy his time without distorting his reality. Although he does lose sight of his humanity and begins to revert to barbaric methods, he is able to keep these actions under control, and when he finally reaches Mexico, he is still a sane and rational person. Many people might say he did not maintain his humanity, but because he was assimilated back into normal life, and still had a sense of morals, there is no argument that he was not able to. His ability to right his course when he begins to lose sight of his humanity is essential to his mental survival, and he uses it to enable himself to remain sane and keep his mind sharp.

Bevezets - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 60 Words: 17901 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? 1 BEVEZETS A kezdetektl rohamosan fejld szmtgpiparban folyamatosan szksg van arra, hogy az adatok s programok trolsra szolgl eszkzk (sszefoglal nven httrtrolk) is kvetni tudjk a szmtgpek tbbi elemnek (pl. processzor, memria) fejldsbl add megnvekedett ignyeket a trolkapacits nvekedse, s ezek teljestmnye (az adatokhoz val hozzfrs s az adatoknak az adathordozra trtn rsi sebessge) tern. Mindezt gy kell megvalstani, hogy a biztonsgot s a gazdasgossgot se ldozzk fel a fejlds oltrn.. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Bevezets" essay for you Create order Dolgozatomban a httrtrols, az ehhez szksges eszkzk ltrejttnek, s ezek fejldsnek bemutatsval klns tekintettel az elmlt 10 v fejlesztseire kvnok eljutni addig, hogy megprbljam megllaptani, hogy mi lehet a jvbeli fejlds irnya a PC-k beptett httrtrolinak s kls, hordozhat, cserlhet adathordozinak vonatkozsban. Az adattrols szksgessgnek s a digitlis adattrols mdjnak bemutatsval kezdve, az adattrolk fejldst a kezdetektl a jelen, s taln a jv trolsi technikinak bemutatsig, sorra vesszk a httrtrols fejldsi irnyait, eljutva a lyukkrtytl a holografikus trolig. Az idrendi sorrendben trtn bemutatson tl, mkdsi elvk/adathordoz anyaga szerint is osztlyozva mutatjuk be azokat az eszkzket, technolgikat, amelyek bevltottk a hozzjuk fztt remnyeket, s fejldsnek indultak, de bemutatjuk azokat is, amelyek klnfle de a legtbbszr nem technikai, technolgiai, hanem zletpolitikai okoknl fogva vakvgnynak bizonyultak. Mindekzben a manapsg legelterjedtebb mgneslemezes adattrolrl megprbljuk kiderteni, hogy technikai rtelemben van-e mg benne fejldsi lehetsg. Konkrtan arra keressk a vlaszt, hogy a teljestmnynvekedshez a technolgibl addan hozz tartoz a fordulatszm-nvekeds kvetkeztben fellp melegeds kordban tarthat-e az ismert htsi eljrsok segtsgvel, vagy esetleg ez lehet az, ami meggtolja ennek a technolginak a tovbbi fejldst. Mindezt a gyakorlatban elvgzett, mrsek segtsgvel prbljuk bizonytani (vagy cfolni). 2 A HTTRTROLK CSOPORTOSTSA A szmtgpes feldolgozs sorn elkerlhetetlen az adatok trolsa. Mivel a memria felejt trol vagyis a gp kikapcsolsakor a tartalma elvsz -, ezrt szksg van tarts trolsra alkalmas eszkzkre is. Ezt a cl szolgljk a httrtrolk. A httrtroln trolt adatokkal nem vgezhetnk mveleteket, valamint az ott trolt programok nem futtathatk. Hasznlatukhoz elbb be kell ket a memriba tlteni. A mai modern httrtrolk kialakulsa eltt az adatok beolvassa nem volt egyszer feladat. Azon kvl, hogy nem volt rm hasznlni ezeket pldul: lyukkrtya-olvas s streamer-, tbb nagyobb htrnyuk is volt. Pldul a processzor teljestmnyhez kpest a beolvassi sebessg rendkvl lass volt s a szalagok kzi cserje is nagyon idignyes. A kzponti egysg jobb kihasznlsnak rdekben merlt fel az igny nagyobb hatkonysg httrtrolra. [3] Vlemnyem szerint, ami a legnagyobb lpst jelentette az adattrols elrehaladsban az a technikai s a fizikai ismeretek bvlse, illetve az, hogy egyre tbb informcit kell trolni. Hiszen az adattrols elszr mechanikus formban jelent meg, radsul azok az adathordozk viszonylag rvid letek voltak. Mostansg pedig mr a mechanikai alkatrszek elektronikai ramkrkkel vannak sszedolgozva, amik sokkal preczebb mveleteket eredmnyeznek. Az ember viszont nem pihen. Mindig jobbra trekszik, gy az adattrolst is tkletesteni szeretn. Ennek fnyben a mai kor vvmnyaknt ltrehozta az SSD meghajtkat. Ezekben az eszkzkben mr nincs mozg alkatrsz, csakis flvezetk. Ennek ksznheten lecskken a felmerlhet hibk szma. Nincs, ami kikophatna, vagy megkarcoldhatna. Rviden sszefoglalva, amg az ember kpes lesz gondolkodni s pteni, addig az adattrolk is meg fognak julni. Egyik felfedezs sem fogja megmondani, hogy mi lesz a kvetkez generci kpviselje, csak utat mutathat fel. 3 A HTTRTROLK CSOPORTOSTSA A httrtrolkat tbb szempont szerint csoportosthatjuk. A csoportosts trtnhet pldul az adathordoz anyaga szerint. E szerint megklnbztethetnk papr, vagy manyag alap, mgneses rteggel elltott manyag vagy fm adathordozkat, illetve flvezet alap troleszkzket. De lehetsges mg a mkdsi elv szerint trtn besorols, miszerint beszlhetnk mechanikus, optikai, mgneses, vagy magneto-optikai elven mkd, illetve flash alap, vagy akr holografikus eljrst alkalmaz httrtrolkrl. Dolgozatomban a mkdsi elv s a kronolgiai sorrend szerinti csoportostst vlaszto t tam . 3.1 A papr, vagy manyag alap httrtrak A papr, vagy manyag alap httrtrak kz soroljuk a lyukkrtyt s utdt, a lyukszalagot. Ezek voltak az els adathordozk, melyeket ma mr nem alkalmaznak, hiszen feldolgozsuk lass, kezelsk krlmnyes, knnyen srlhetnek, valamint nagy tmeg s mennyisg alapanyagot ignyelnek. Egyetlen elnyk, hogy olyan krnyezetben is alkalmazhatk, ahol a mgneses adathordozk nem. 3.1.1 Lyukkrtya A lyukkrtya, vagy Hollerith-krtya olyan adathordoz, elsdlegesen adatbeviteli eszkz, ahol a digitlis informcit a kemnypaprbl kszlt krtyn adott pozciban meglev lyukakkal brzoljk. Lyukkrtykat s ehhez hasonl rendszereket mr a 18. szzad kzepn hasznltak az automatizls s az adatfeldolgozs terletn. Az egyeslt llamokbeli npszmlls adatainak feldolgozshoz az IBM alaptja, Hermann Hollerith hasznlt lyukkrtykat elszr. Tbbnyire az ismtld folyamatok vezrlse volt a cljuk. Lteztek pldul lyukkrtya-vezrls szvszkek, ahol a lyukkrtyt falapok jelentettk. 1. bra: A Jaquard-fle szvszk lyukkrtyi 2. bra: COBOL-program egyik utastst tartalmaz lyukkrtya Mkdse: A lyukkrtyk lyukasztsra egy krtyalyukaszt szolglt, de ksztettek kzi lyukasztsra szolgl egyszer krtyalyukasztkat is. Miutn a krtyalyukasztval rvittk a kdot a krtykra, a krtykat egy msodik gpen ellenriztk. A msodik gpen jbl bevittk az adatokat, s ha a msodik bevitel egyezett a krtyn mr meglv lyukasztsokkal, akkor a krtyt a gp ellenrzttknt jellte meg. A programkrtya ami a krtyalyukaszt egyik rsze a munka megknnytsre szolglt. Ennek segtsgvel pldul numerikus, vagy alfanumerikus mezket is meg lehetett hatrozni a krtyn, s ezekhez a mezkhz kzvetlenl lehetett ugrani. Az jabb kszlkek arra is alkalmasak voltak, hogy a lyukkrtya adattartalmt szvegesen is megjelentsk a krtyn. A lyukkrtynak a szmtgpek ltrejttben fontos szerepe volt. Az orszg els jelfogs szmtgpnek, MESz-1 (MEgyetemi Szmtgp) programjait lyukkrtykon troltk. A gp rendszert, architektrjt, mveletvgzsi, valamint vezrlrendszert Kozma Lszl fejlesztette ki. A gp tervezse s ptse 1955-ben kezddtt el. 1958-tl kzel 10 ven keresztl hasznltk elssorban az oktatsban, de klnfle ipari feladatok kiszmtsra is alkalmaztk. 3. bra: MESz-1 Az 1960-as vektl kezdden a mgnesszalagok bevezetsvel a lyukkrtya fokozatosan vesztett szmtstechnikai jelentsgbl. Az 1960-as vek vgn az IBM mg tervezte kisebb mret s nagyobb kapacits krtyk bevezetst, de erre mr nem kerlt sor. Az 1980-as vekre mr alkalmatlann vlt a szmtgpes adatok trolsra. 3.1.2 A lyukkrtykat azonban tovbbra is alkalmaztk ms terleteken, pldul mosgpek programjainak trolsra, illetve belptet krtyaknt. Ezekben az esetekben azonban a krtya nem kartonpaprbl, hanem vkony manyaglapbl kszlt. A chipkrtya elterjedse azonban ennek a felhasznlsi mdnak is vget vetett. Hollerith-krtykat nhny mechanikus blokkolrnl mg hasznlnak. [4] 3.1.4 Lyukszalag A lyukszalag a korai nagyszmtgpek adattrol eszkze volt. Elnye volt, hogy a trolsi hmrskletre s a krnyezetre nem volt knyes. Lasssga, s alacsony trolkpessge miatt elavult, s szerept tvettk a mgneses adattrol eszkzk. Robosztussga miatt mg sokig alkalmaztk a gpiparban, NC s CNC szerszmgpeken adatok bevitelre, mivel a poros s olajos krnyezetet viszonylag jl brta. A lyukszalag viszonylag ers paprbl, vagy manyagbl kszlt csk, amelyre az adat lyukasztssal kerl fel. 4. bra: Lyukszalag Mkdse: A lyukszalagolvas mechanikusan, vagy optikailag rzkeli a szalagon tallhat lyukakat, s azokat binris rtkknt rtelmezi. A lyukszalagon a lyukak hosszanti irny sorokban helyezkedtek el, ezek szmnak megfelelen beszlnk 5-8 csatorns lyukszalagokrl. Az informcit hordoz lyukak kztt egy aprbb lyuksor is tallhat, mely a mechanikus szalagolvask esetben a szalag tovbbtst segti. A szalagot a kisebb lyuksorba kapaszkod specilis fogaskerk vitte elre. [5] rdemes megemlteni, hogy az M-3-nl (az els magyar teljesen elektronikus szmtgp) az adatok bevitelre lyukszalagolvast mint kls memrit hasznltak. Az M3 1957 sztl 1959 vgig plt, de fejlesztse ezutn is sok feladatot adott. Az M-3 nagy hatssal volt a tudomnyos s gazdasgi letre. 1968-ban megsemmistettk, csupn nhny dob s alegysg maradt meg belle. A M-3 operatv tra elszr egy mgnesdob-memria volt, kezdetben 1 ksz kapacitssal (1 sz 31 bit), majd tovbbfejlesztettk 1,6 kszra. 1960-ban j mgnesdob vezrl egysg plt, ami ngy folyamatosan cmzett mgnesdobot tudott a gphez csatolni. Ksbb, a ferritmemria (1 ksz kapacits tr) megrkezse s illesztse utn a dobok httrmemriaknt mkdtek. 5. bra: Az M-3 mgnesdob memrija 3.2 A mgneses adathordozk A lyukkrtya s lyukszalag httrbe szorulsval eltrbe kerlt a mgneses adattrolkra trtn rgzts. Kt jellemz tpusa a szalagos s a lemezes. A szalagos trolk soros elrs trolk, ami azt jelenti, hogy egy bizonyos adat megkeresshez az sszes eltte lv adaton vgig kell haladni. A mgneslemezes tr elnye, hogy a szalaggal ellenttben nem nylik, gy biztonsgosabban lehet megkeresni a kvnt informci helyt. Kzvetlen elrs trol, teht nem kell egyszerre az sszes adatot kiolvasni, hanem egyes rszeit is el lehet rni. Jellemzik: a trolhat adatmennyisg nagysga (kapacits), a sebessge (gyorsasga), azaz mekkora az adat-hozzfrsi id, valamint az adatsrsg nagysga. Tbb fajtja ltezik, amelyek trolsi kapacitsban s biztonsgban egyarnt klnbznek egymstl. Mieltt belekezdenk a mgnesszalagos trolk ismertetetsbe, nhny mondatban szeretnm bemutatni az M-3 kapcsn mr emltett mgnesdobos trolt. Ezt a trolt digitlis szmtgpekben hasznltk. Az els mgnesdobos trolt 1949-ben ksztettk el 1024 sz kapacitssal. A mgnesdob trolban a mgneses rteg egy henger felletn helyezkedik el. Az informcit krgyr alak, vagy a henger alkotjval prhuzamos svon jegyzik fel. Az r- s olvasfejeket a henger alkotjval (a forgstengellyel) prhuzamosan rgztik. Az informci szervezse soros, vagy prhuzamos. Soros szervezs esetn az egymshoz tartoz bitek egy-egy krgyr mentn helyezkednek el s az ll r/olvasfejekhez gy egyms utn sorosan jutnak. Prhuzamos szervezsnl az egymshoz taroz bitek a henger egy alkotja mentn helyezkednek el, gy az ll r/olvas fejekhez egyszerre jutnak (prhuzamos zem). A mgnesdob trolk jelentsge a mgneslemez s mgnesszalag trolknl kisebb. 3.2.1 Mgnesszalagos trol (streamer) A mgnesszalag (magnetic tape) egy szles, mgneses fellet manyag szalag. Az egyik legrgebbi msodlagos troleszkz, amelyik kinzetben s trolsi elvben hasonl a kznsges magnszalagokhoz, de lnyeges klnbsg, hogy analg jelrgzts helyett digitlis rgztst hasznl. 6. bra: Mgnesszalag A mgnesszalagok, mint szmtgpes httrtrak mkdst brmelyik 70-es vekbeli Colombo filmen lehet ltni. Akkor ezeken a szalagokon nagyon nagy mennyisg adatot lehetett trolni. (Ez akkor kb.: 108 bit volt, ami durvn 10 MBjt). Ma mr tbb szz GBjt adatot is lehet rajtuk trolni. Mgnesszalagnl az adatok lland mret blokkokban helyezkednek el, melyeket res rszek (gap-ek) vlasztanak el egymstl. A szalag elejn s vgn adattrolsra nem hasznlt befz rszek tallhatak. A szalag vgt alumniumcsk jelzi. Mgnesszalag trat mikroszmtgpek mellet nem hasznlnak, legfeljebb egyszerbb szemlyi szmtgpeknl (PC) kazetta formjban. Mikroszmtgpes krnyezetben a mgnesszalag egyetlen alkalmazsi terlete az adatllomnyok archivlsra szolgl eszkz (streamer) adathordozjaknt funkcionl. rdekessgknt megemltenm, hogy az IBM j rekordot lltott be a mgnesszalagok kapacitsban: nem kevesebb, mint 35 TB-nyi adat rgzthet a szintn j fejleszts mgnesszalagjukkal elltott kazettra. Az j szalag egy ngyzethvelyknyi (6,45 ngyzetcentimter) felletn 29,5 millird bitet tudnak eltrolni, 39-szeresen fellmlva gy a mgnesszalagos megolds eddigi legjobb lehetsgeit. A mgnesszalagos egysgek (streamer, adatramoltat) az adatok, programok trolsra hasznlatosak a szmtstechnikban. A merevlemezeken lev fjlokat, adatokat, programokat kzvetlenl el tudjuk rni a szmtgprl, ellenttben a szalagokkal, ahonnan ltalban csak a diszkre trtn visszatlts utn hasznlhatk az informcik. A mgnesszalag kazettban van elhelyezve, a magnkazetthoz hasonl mdon. A mgnesszalagos meghajt lehet kls egysg, de bele is pthet a szmtgpbe, a szabvnyos helyre. 7. bra: Mgnesszalagos egysg A mgnesszalag-egysg (meghajt) f funkcii: * Blokk rsa, * olvassa, * trlse, * a szalag mozgatsa. * A mgnesszalagot orsk mozgatjk az r-olvas fejek eltt. A tovbbts irnytl fggen, a kilyuggatott orsk egyikre rszvjk, a msikon leveg kifjssal ltrehozott lgprnn cssztatjk. * A nagy sebessg elrshez a szalagot az orsk mellett vkuumkamrkba szvjk. * 8. bra: Mgnesszalag mkdse rdemes megemlteni a DAT[1]-meghajtkat. Ezek szintn mgnesszalagot hasznlnak a trolshoz, de kapacitsuk jelentsebb, mivel tls svfelvitelt valstanak meg. 9. bra: DAT kazetta A mgnesszalagos trols a mai napig korszernek szmt a szmtstechnikban s a szrakoztatiparban egyarnt. Igaz, nem a jl ismert analg, hanem a digitlis vltozat. Ezek a mgnesszalagos kazettk tbb Gbyte informcit is tudnak trolni. Igaz, hogy soros elrsek, teht csak a felrs sorrendjben lehet az adatokat visszaolvasni. ppen ezrt inkbb hossz tv archivlsra, illetve a srlkenyebb adattrolkon trolt informci biztonsgi msolatra hasznljk. A szrakoztatiparban elssorban a DAT-kazettkat hasznljk. Ezek digitalizljk a hanganyagot, s ezltal lehetv teszik, hogy a szoksos analg magnval ellenttben ne njn minden egyes felvtelkor, vagy msolskor a hangminsget ront zaj erssge, hanem ksbb is ugyanolyan tiszta maradjon a felvtel. Ennek legfkppen a rdimsorok ksztsekor van nagy jelentsge. Egy ilyen kazettra akr tbb rnyi msort is rgzthetnk, s ezt brmikor le is jtszhatjuk anlkl, hogy a minsg romlstl kellene tartanunk. 3.2.2 Hajlkonylemez s hHajlkonylemezes (floppy) meghajt Az IBM 1971-ben vezette be a mgneslemezes trolst. A hajlkonylemezek hajlkonylemezek (floppy disk, FD) voltak az els hordozhat, mgneses elven mkd adathordozk. Pr mondat erejig kitrnk Jnosi Marcellra, aki a 3,5-os floppy snek, a 3-os kazetts hajlkonylemeznek a feltallja. A hajlkonylemezt a Budapesti Rditechnikai Gyrban (BRG) fejlesztette ki. Akkoriban trolegysgknt elterjedt volt a 8-os paprtasakos hajlkonylemez. Jnosinak az az tlete tmadt, hogy az alkalmazott lemezeket is el lehetne helyezni a magnszalagok kazettihoz hasonl merev kazettban. A szabadalom 1974-ben kerlt bejegyzsre. A tallmny hrre a korszak legmeghatrozbb cgei s emberei jttek trgyalni, de a BRG megtiltott mindenfle trgyalst, mert a szocialista orszgok akkori egysges szmtgpes rendszerben nem lehetett az imperialista vilg rendelkezsre bocstani ily szellemi termket. A prbagyrts az risi nemzetkzi rdekldst ltva is csak jval ksbb, 1981-ben kezddtt MCD-1-es nven. A nhny ezer legyrtott pldnyt Nmetorszgban szereltk be az akkor ppen megjelen mikrogpekbe. Az MCD-1-et a feltall krse ellenre nem gyrtottk, s nem is adtk el. A szabadalmi djat nem fizettk, gy ettl kezdve Jnosi Marcell alkotst mindenki szabadon felhasznlhatta. Elsknt az amerikai IBM rdekldtt a floppy utn, s ksbb ksztettek egy, a Jnosinl nagyobbat, egy 8inch-est. A japnok is kvncsiak voltak r, majd el is ksz tettk a Jnosira leginkbb hasonlt floppyt. 10. bra: A BRG-ben gyrtott MCD-1 kazetts floppy Rgen mg a szmtgpekben nem voltak ltalnosan elterjedt merevlemezes meghajtk (winchesterek) -, ezekre a kiskapacits adathordozkra plt a szmtgpes adattrols. Mi sem bizonytja ezt jobban, mint az els szleskrben elterjedt, PC-re kszlt opercis rendszer a DOS, aminek mr a neve (Disk Operating System) is utal arra, hogy egy lemezes opercis rendszerrel van dolgunk. Lemezek tbb mretben kszltek, a legelterjedtebbek a 8, 5,25 s 3,5 collos (hvelykes) mretek voltak. 11. bra: 8, 5,25 s 3,5 floppy Mkdse: Az informcit egy mgnesezhet rteggel elltott kr alak lemezen troljuk. Az adatok a mgneslemezen koncentrikus gyrkn svokon troldnak. Ha az r-olvas fejet a kivlasztott svra lltjuk, az informci leolvashat. Ezek a krk annak ellenre, hogy befel haladva egyre kisebb a kerletk, mgis ugyanannyi bitnyi informcit trolnak. Ez gy lehetsges, hogy a kls krk mentn nincs kihasznlva teljesen a trolkpessg, azonban a lemez hasznlata szempontjbl ez az egyszerbb megolds. A lemezek formzsa, rsa s olvassa az r-olvas fejek segtsgvel trtnik. Ezek a forg lemezzel nem rintkeznek, hanem a forgs kzben kialakult lgprnn futnak. Olvasskor a fellet mgneses llapotait rzkelik, rskor pedig megvltoztatjk azokat. A csak sugrirnyban mozg r-olvas fejet lptetmotor helyezi a kivlasztott sv fl. 12. bra: A floppy felptse A lemezt manyag burkolat vdi a krnyezeti rtalmak (por, mechanikai hatsok stb.) ellen, megbontsa vagy eltvoltsa utn a lemez nem hasznlhat. A hajlkonylemez hasznlathoz szksg van egy be-, illetve kiviteli egysgre, a hajlkonylemez-meghajtra (FDD, floppy disk drive). 13. bra: Floppy-meghajt Tpusai: Az adathordoz korong kls tmrje s kapacitsa alapjn a kvetkez tpusok klnbztethetk meg: A korai, 8 inch-es meghajtk mreteik miatt mg kls egysgek voltak. A lemezek kapacitsa tpustl fggen 160-500 kB volt. 5,25 inch (1 inch = 2,54 cm) tmrj lemez, melybl kt klnbz kapacits tpus ltezik. Ezeket a kvetkez jelzsekkel klnbztetik meg: o Az SS SD (SS: egyoldalas; SD: szimpla srsg) tpusjelzs lemez kapacitsa: 128 kB. o A DS DD (DS: ktoldalas; DD: dupla rssrsg) tpusjelzs lemez kapacitsa: 360 kB. o A DS HD (DS: ktoldalas; HD: magas rssrsg) tpusjelzs lemez kapacitsa: 1,2 MB. 3,5 inch (1 inch = 2,54 cm) tmrj lemez, melybl kt klnbz kapacits tpus ltezik. Ezeket a kvetkez jelzsekkel klnbztetik meg o A DS DD (DS: ktoldalas; DD: dupla rssrsg) tpusjelzs lemez kapacitsa: 720 kB. o A DS HD (DS: ktoldalas; HD: magas rssrsg) tpusjelzs lemez kapacitsa: 1,44 MB. o A DS ED (DS: ktoldalas; HD: extra rssrsg) tpusjelzs lemez kapacitsa: 2,88 MB. [6] A hajlkony mgneslemezek veszlyei A mgneslemezek nagy hibja, hogy az r/olvas fej, amibl oldalanknt egy tallhat a meghajtban, menet kzben hozzr a lemez fellethez. Ha ez hozz is nyomdik valamilyen mechanikai hiba miatt, akkor a felletet knnyen sszekarcolhatja, eltntetve rla az adathordoz rteget, s vele persze az adatokat is. Ha por rakdik a lemezre, s gy rakjuk be a meghajtba, akkor az r/olvas fejek a port vgighurcoljk a lemez felletn, s ezzel sszekarcoljk azt. Persze a nem megfelel trols sorn is karcoldhat a fellet, hatalmas adatvesztst okozva ezzel. Ha a rendszeradatokat trol szektorok srlnek, akkor az egsz lemez hasznlhatatlann vlhat, mivel itt troldnak azok az informcik, hogy a lemez hny svra, s egy sv hny szektorra van osztva. Ennek ismerete nlkl pedig a lemez hasznlhatatlan. Amennyiben a lemez ms rsze srlt, akkor a rajta lev adatok egy rsze mg megmenthet, azonban elg kockzatos tovbb hasznlni a lemezt, ezrt inkbb el kell dobni. Elfordulhat az is, hogy a lemezhibt mgneses zavar okozza. Ez eredhet abbl is, hogy ers mgneses trben tartottuk a lemezt, s az tmgnesezte az adathordoz rteget, de magtl is megvltozhat egy elregedett lemez mgnesezettsge. Ezt a hibt ltalban egy jraformzssal meg lehet szntetni, de ha a lemez elregedse volt az oka, akkor jra jelentkezni fog a hiba. Ekkor szintn inkbb dobjuk ki a lemezt. Ezekbl jl lthat, hogy ma mr nem nevezhet biztonsgos adattrolnak a hajlkony mgneslemez. Srlkeny adathordoz, kis kapacits, lass adathozzfrs, nagyon rvid lettartam jellemzi; inkbb csak rvid tv trolsra (volt) clszer hasznlni, pldul kt, egymstl fggetlen szmtgp kztti adatcserre. 3.2.3 Zip drive A zip drive ttrst jelentett a floppys adattrolsban 1994-ben a maga 100 MB, majd 250 MB, s vgl 750 MB kapacitsval. Elterjedsnek gtja, hogy a hagyomnyos floppyval nem volt kompatibilis, s magas volt az ra. Inkbb kiscgek hasznltk adataik napi archivlsra. 14. bra: Zip drive A ZIP meghajtban az adathordoz olyan nagy sebessggel (kb. 3000 ford./perc) forog, hogy lgprna alakul ki a lemez s az r/olvas fej kztt. Megoldand viszont a lemez stabilitsa, hiszen a hajlkonylemez ilyen fordulaton berezeghet, vagy thet. Az adathordozt a ZIP kazettban mechanikusan rgztik, s a rugn nyugv fej csak egy kb. 1,2 mm szles rsen t fr a lemezhez. A fej pontos megvezetshez maga az adathordoz szolgl informcival. A hasznos svinformci kz ugyanis gyrilag szervoinformcit rgztenek. Minden fordulat sorn a meghajt 120-szor beolvassa a szervoinformcit, s ezzel vezrli az r/olvas fejet. A szervoinformcit nem szabad megvltoztatni. Ha az adathordoz ers mgneses trbe kerl, nem csak a felrt adatok vesznek el, hanem a szervoinformci is megsrl, s a lemez adattrolsra tbb nem hasznlhat. [7] 3.2.4 SuperDisk SuperDisk (LS 120, A:Drive): a 3,5-os floppyval azonos mret, 120 MB-os floppylemez az adatok trolsra. Tervezi szndka szerint ez az eszkz a PC-s vilgban is alkalmas lett volna a szoksos floppylemezek felvltsra. A tapasztalat szerint azonban fokozottan rzkeny a kls hatsokra, s viszonylag lass, ezrt szles krben nem terjedt el. [8] 15. bra: SuperDisk meghajt 16. bra: SuperDisk lemez 3.2.5 Merevlemezes egysg A technika fejldsvel egyre korltozottabbnak tntek a cserlhet mgneslemezek kapacitsai, ezrt megjelentek a szmtgpekbe fixen beptett merevlemezes egysgek, amelyeket ms nven szoks winchesternek8, vagy hard disk-nek (HDD) is nevezni. A winchester nv az IBM 1973-ban piacra dobott 3340-es tpus merevlemeznek volt a kdneve. 1988-ban a Conner gyrtotta le az els 1 magas 3,5-os merevlemezt, a mai asztali gpekben is gyakorlatilag ezeket a fizikai mret meghajtkat hasznljuk. Mieltt tovbbmennk, pr mondatban kitrnk a RAMAC-ra, a merevlemezek sre. A RAMAC-ot 1956. szeptember 13-n mutattk be az IBM kutati. Ez a kszlk akkor irtzatos mennyisg, azaz 5 megabjtnyi adatot volt kpes eltrolni a 15 darab, hatalmas 24 hvelykes tnyrjn. Az adatokat egy mechanikus karon mozg r-olvasfej kezelte, mely nem csak a lemezek sugrirnyban, hanem az egyes lemezek kztt, fgglegesen is mozoghatott. Az adatok elkeresse gyors volt, a szksges svra 1 msodpercen bell kpes volt odatallni az olvasfej, fggetlenl attl, melyik lemezen foglalt helyet. A RAMAC risi elnye volt az azonnali, vletlenszer hozzfrs, mely a lineris rendszer lyuk- s mgnesszalagok, krtyk korban elkpzelhetetlen sebessg adatelrst nyjtott. HDD 17. bra: RAMAC A merevlemezek mkdse: Itt egy, vagy tbb merev fmlemezre viszik fel a mgnesezhet rteget. A lemezek formzsa, rsa s olvassa az r-olvas fejek segtsgvel trtnik. A lemez lland fordulatszmmal forogva halad el a fej eltt, gy, hogy fizikailag nem rintkezik vele. Olvasskor a fellet mgneses llapotait rzkelik, rskor pedig megvltoztatjk azokat. A csak sugrirnyban mozg r-olvas fejeket lptetmotor helyezi a kivlasztott cilinder fl. A lemez forgsbl szrmaz lgmozgs felhajtert gyakorol a fejre, a fejet pedig torzis rug nyomja a lemez fel. A kt er kiegyenltdse kvetkeztben a fej a lemez fellettl mrt nhny tized mikromterre repl. Az adatok trolsa technikailag megegyezik a hajlkony lemezvel (svok s szektorok tallhatk a lemezen), a klnbsg a svok s szektorok szmban, valamint a bitek srsgben van. A nagyobb adatsrsget az biztostja, hogy az egsz berendezs a lemezekkel, s a kztk lev r/olvas fejekkel egytt egy pormentes, lgritka trben tallhat. [9] 18. bra: A merevlemez felptse A nagy mretnagymret optikai lemezek, a flash memrik, illetve a hordozhat, kls HDD-k megjelensig elterjedt volt a cserlhet fikokba (mobile rack) helyezhet hagyomnyos merevlemezek hasznlata. 19. bra: Mobile rack 20. bra: USB-s HDD 3.2.6 Az USB csatlakozk terjedsvel megjelentek az USB-s HDD-k is. Ezek mretkben kisebbek, viszont kapacitsuk szinte azonos a bepthetkkel. Praktikus zletembereknek, akik egsz nap laptoppal jrnak-kelnek, s a gp trhely kapacitst kinttk, vagy szemlyes informcikat nem akarnak trolni a cges eszkzn, viszont j, ha kznl vannak ezek a dokumentumok. De ajnlom brkinek, akiknek nem elg egy 32, vagy 64GB-os pendrive. Az USB-s HDD-nek nagyobb a feszltsg ignye, mint egy egyszer pendrive-nak, ezrt kt USB kbellel oldottk meg a szakemberek ezt a problmt. Az egyik kbelen az adatcsere s a feszltsg megy t, a msikon viszont csak a feszltsg. 3.2.8 A merevlemezes trak veszlyei A merevlemezes traknl egy, vagy tbb merev fmlemezre viszik fel a mgnesezhet rteget. A nagyobb adatsrsget az biztostja, hogy az egsz berendezs a lemezekkel s a kztk lev r/olvas fejekkel egytt egy pormentes, lgritka trben tallhat. A Bernoulli-trvnyt kihasznlva a gyorsan forg lemezek kztt a lgritka trben keletkez nyomsviszonyok a lemez fellete fltt pr mikronnyi tvolsgban lebegtetik a fejeket. Ebbl azonban kt veszlyhelyzet is addik. Az egyik veszly akkor addik, hogyha valamilyen ok miatt megsznik a fejek lebegse. Pldul a szmtgp kikapcsolsakor, a lemezek megllsakor kvetkezik ez be. Ha mr nem elg nagy a lemezek forgsi sebessge a fejek lebegtetshez, akkor azok resnek a lemez felletre, s sszekarcoljk azt. Ha ez olyan helyen kvetkezik be, ahol a lemezen adat tallhat, akkor azok az adatok a mgnesezhet rteggel egytt rkre elvesznek. Ennek elkerlse rdekben vagy legkvl, vagy legbell minden merevlemezen tallhat egy olyan terlet, ahol nincs mgnesezhet rteg. Kikapcsolskor a fejeknek ezen a terleten kell lennik, s itt is kell maradniuk a kvetkez bekapcsols utn mindaddig, amg a lemezek el nem rik az zemi fordulatszmot. Ezt a terletet nevezzk parkolplynak. A modern merevlemezes trolkban egy mechanika mr gondoskodik arrl, hogy h a az eszkz nem kap ramot, akkor a fejek azonnal a parkolplyra kerljenek, gy mire a lebegtet hats megsznik, a lemez mr biztonsgban lesz. A msik veszly, ha valami porszem bekerl az amgy pormentes trbe. Ha egyetlen porszem is beakad a fejek, s a lemez fellete kz, akkor az tnkreteheti az egsz lemezfelletet. [21] rdemes nhny szt ejtennk a merevlemezek adatsrsgrl (rssrsgrl), hiszen ez nagyban befolysolja a trolkapacitst, mretet, rat, s nem utols sorban a teljestmnyt is. A merevlemezek adatsrsge kt tnyeztl fgg: Svsrsg: azt mutatja meg, hogy colonknt (2,54 cm) hny sv tallhat meg a lemezen (TPI Track Per Inch), Lineris srsg: a sv adott hosszn eltrolt adatbitek szmt mutatja. Mindkt tnyez attl fgg, hogy egy adatbitet mekkora mret folt kpvisel a lemezen. Ezen foltok mrete a merevlemezek fejldsvel folyamatosan cskkent. Az adatsrsg nvelsvel egy bizonyos hatron tl az adatbiteket trol foltok mgneses llapotnak megvltoztatshoz olyan kis energia is elegend lesz, amelyet a folt a krnyezeti hbl is fel tud venni. Ekkor a foltok llapota instabill vlik, s a technolgia alkalmatlann vlik az adattrolsra. Ezt a jelensget szuperparamgneses effektusnak, illetve hatrnak nevezik, s elkpzelhet, hogy ezt a technolgiai hatrt hamarosan elrik a gyrtk. Az is lehetsges azonban, hogy mg sokig cskkenhet a foltok mrete, mire a technolgia elri ezt a hatrt, mivel nem lehet pontosan tudni, hol is van valjban. (Megjelent mr 2,5 inches, vagyis mobil eszkzkbe sznt, 2db egyenknt 320GB-os tnyrral elltott 640 GB-os meghajt is, amely 507 Gb/ngyzethvelykes adatsrsggel bszklkedhet. Ez a korbbi 394 Gb/ngyzethvelykes rtkhez kpest igen nagy elrelpsnek nevezhet.) [https://ipon.hu/hir/640_gb_os_mobil_merevlemez_a_seagate_tol/10319] 3.3 Az optikai elven mkd adathordozk A digitlis adattrols jelenleg egyik legelterjedtebb mdja az optikai trols. Az optikai lemezek manyag lapban ltrehozott bemlyedseket, lyukakat tartalmaz korongok, melyeket a srlstl val vdelem kedvrt egy msodik manyag rteggel vontak be. Az optikai adattrol rendszereket a hatvanas vekben kezdtk kifejleszteni. Clok: kpek nagy adatsrsg eszkzn trtn rgztse, amelyrl ksbb optikai ton azok leolvashatk, valamint, hogy az informcisrsg legalbb akkora legyen, mint az akkor ismert legnagyobb mgneses adattrol srsge. A 80-as vek elejn felmerlt az, hogy ltrehoznak egy olyan adathordozt, amely a korbbi, mgneses elven mkd adathordozk problmit (pldul: a szalag nylsa, s az ebbl add futs-egyenetlensg; a hre s mgnesessgre val nagymrtk rzkenysg; kevss biztos adattrolsi biztonsg; nagy trfogat; kis kapacits s viszonylagosan lass adatelrsi sebessg) kvnta kikszblni. Az optikai adattrol rendszerekre jellemz, hogy az rs s olvass lzersugrral trtnik. Mkdsi elv: Az optikai trol felletn az adatok rgztsekor kis mret mlyedseket hozunk ltre, amelyeken a leolvasskor a lzersugr sztszrdik, mg azadathordoz rteg eredeti felletrl visszaverdik. A mdium olvassakor a visszavert fnyt rzkeljk, s alaktjuk vissza adatokk. Az optikai trolkat tbb tulajdonsguk marknsan megklnbzteti a mgneses trolsi technolgitl: az optikai trolkra nagy trolsi srsg jellemz. Ennek oka, hogy a fny sokkal kisebb felletre fkuszlhat, mint a mgneses trolk elemi trol fellete. [12] Az optikai trolk alatt ltalban a CD-k s DVD-k klnbz tpusait rtjk. Ezek alkalmasak multimdis alkalmazsok, nagymret programok trolsra, valamint archivlsra is. 3.3.1 CD A CD-hanglemez az 1980-as vekben jelent meg, s igen gyorsan el is terjedt a digitlis hangtechnika vilgban. A Sony, s a Philips cg 1980-ban, kzs fejleszts utn dobta piacra. Compact Disc kompakt-lemez, vagy fnylemez; optikai elvek alapjn mkd, tetszleges hozzfrs troleszkz. Ez volt az els optikai elven mkd adattrol. Gyrilag prselssel lltjk el, tetszleges adatot tartalmazhat; archivlt dokumentumok, kpek, mdostst nem ignyl programok trolsra idelis. A CD manyag lemezen alumnium, vagy arany fnyvisszaver rteg helyezkedik el, ezen sorjznak a bitek (vilgos vagy sttebb mlyedsek, pit-ek). Az adat leolvassa lzerfnnyel trtnik, a visszaverd szrt fnyt mrik: a stt pontokrl kevesebb fny verdik vissza. Az adatok a lemez kzeptl kifel spirlszeren helyezkednek el. Az adatok leolvasshoz infravrs lzert hasznlnak. A lemez kapacitsa 640-900 MB. 21. bra: Egy CD lemez als, rott oldala A CD-ROM meghajt Az eltr forrs szabvnyos mret lemezeket fogad CD-meghajt a lemezt lland lineris, vagy lland szgsebessggel forgatja. A meghajt fkuszlt lzerfeje nagy pontossggal kveti a lemezre rt spirlis svot. A lemezt egy motorikusan mozgathat tlca hzza a hordozkereten bell tallhat optikai rendszer fl. Az optikai rendszer elsdleges feladata a CD-n trolt lyuk informci digitlis jelekk alaktsa. Legalbb ennyire fontos, hogy a fej a spirlis kanyarod felrst pontosan kvesse. Az adatok kiolvassa a polikarbont hordozrteg fell trtnik a lzerdida fkuszlt fnynek segtsgvel, bellrl kifel halad spirlvonal mentn. A digitlis adatokat a pitek s a kztk helyezked sk terletek, a landok adjk meg. A lemez letapogatsa a fnyinterferencia jelensgn alapul. A lzerdida lland hullmhosszsg fnye letapogatja a tkrz bevonattal elltott pitrendszert. A letapogat nyalb a land-rl visszaverdik, ez digitlisan 1 jelet jelent. A fnynyalb visszaverdse a pit-rl mr ellenkez fzisban trtnik, a visszavert fny intenzitsa alacsonyabb, ez lesz a digit lis 0 jel. 22. bra: A CD-ROM meghajt optikja A CD lemez fajti: A CD-k fizikai felptsk szerint kt csoportba sorolhatk. A felhasznl ltal szabadon, egyszer, vagy tbbszr rhat CD-re, illetve a felhasznl ltal csak olvashat CD-kre. CD-ROM[2]: csak olvashat. Gyrilag prselssel lltjk el, s gyrtsuk sorn rjk r fel az informcit. Maximlis kapacitsa 650 MB, vagy szabvnyos zenei CD esetn 74 perc lehet. Az informcit digitlisan modullt lzerfnnyel rgztik a rtegen. rhat CD[3] (CD-R), vagy ms nven WORM lemez[4]: Egyszer rhat, de sokszor olvashat lemez. Amikor a lemezre adatokat runk, ers (a kiolvassnl nagyobb energij) lzerfnyt bocst a CD-r, amely kigeti a fnyelnyel rteget, s gy az alatta tallhat fnyvisszaver fellet lthatv vlik. A fnyelnyel rteg nem alakthat vissza, ha mr egyszer fnyteresztv vlt, ezrt a lemezre mr felrt informci nem mdosthat, nem trlhet. Kapacitsa 650 800 MB. jrarhat CD[5] (CD-RW): Az jrarhat CD tartalma akr tbb ezerszer is jra rhat. Az adattrolsra ennl a lemezfajtnl visszafordthat technolgit alkalmaznak, amely azonban drgbb, gy ezek a lemezek drgbbak az rhat CD-knl. Ezenkvl lteznek gynevezett magneto-optikai[6] (CD-MO) lemezek is. Ezek rhat, trlhet, s jrarhat lemezek. Felvteli technolgija egyesti a mgneses jelrgzts rsi, s trlsi elnyeit a lzeroptika nagy rssrsgvel. Az MO lemezek az adattrols rdekben a fny mgneses trbeli viselkedst is kihasznljk a hagyomnyos optikai trolkkal szemben, melyeknl csak a lzerfny visszaverdsi s kioltsi tulajdonsgait hasznljk fel. A CD-MO lemez a hagyomnyos CD olvasban nem olvashat, mivel az adatok olvassakor az elektronika a visszavert fnyer polarizcis elfordulst rzkeli. [14] A CD lemez nem rklet, de tbb vtizedig kpes trolni az adatokat minsgromls nlkl persze, ha betartjk a szigor minsgi elrsokat-. 23. bra: CD-R lemezek 24. bra: CD-RW lemez 3.3.2 DVD Az egyre nagyobb adatmennyisg trolsnak ignye szksgess tette a CD kapacitsnl nagyobb adathordoz ltrejttt. gy szletett meg a DVD[7]. A DVD nagy kapacits optikai trol (digitlis sokoldal korong), amely leginkbb mozgkp, j minsg hang, valamint adat trolsra hasznlatos. A DVD-rendszer fellrl kompatibilis a CD-rendszerrel, ami azt jelenti, hogy a DVD meghajtkban olvashatk a hagyomnyos CD lemezek is. A CD kapacitsnak tbbszrsre kpes. A nagyobb kapacits elssorban annak ksznhet, hogy kisebb hullmhossz lzerfnyt hasznlnak, amely lehetv teszi a kisebb adattrolsi mret alkalmazst. gy a lemezen a bitek srbben helyezkednek el, mint a CD esetn. Ezenkvl tbb, egyms fltti rteget is lehet alkalmazni, amelyek mind egy kicsit ms hullmhossz fnyt kpesek visszaverni. 25. bra: A CD s a DVD lemez szerkezete DVD meghajt A DVD lemezeken kisebb mret lyukak s kzk tallhatak, valamint a spirlis svok tvolsga is kisebb, gy a lzerhullmhosszt cskkentve kisebb fnyfoltra trtnik a fkuszls. A DVD-CD kompatibilits jegyben a DVD meghajt egysgek kt klnbz lencserendszert hasznlnak a kt klnbz optikai trol olvasshoz. A holografikus lencsefellet kzepn tallhat bevgsok hosszabb, a lencse szle ahol nincsenek bevgsok rvidebb fkuszt eredmnyeznek. Egyes meghajtk ikerlencss megoldssal olvassk a CD-t s a DVD-t. 26. bra: A DVD-ROM meghajt optikja A DVD lemez mindkt oldaln kialakthat kt trol rteg. A ktrteg lemez, DL-lemez (Dual vagy Double Layer) a mr megszokott DVD+(-)R korongok kapacitsnak (elvi) megduplzsa mg egy rhat rteg segtsgvel. A lemez els, rhat fellett (alulrl, a lemez rhat oldaltl felfel haladva) egy manyag polikarbont rteg vdi, mg az ezt kvet rhat felletet egy, a lzer fnyt flig tereszt, fmes, tkrzd rteg kveti. Efltt szintn egy fmes, tkrz felletet tallunk, amely ezttal mr nem engedi tovbb a lzernyalbot. A polikarbont rteget a feliratot hordoz fellet kveti. DVD fajti: DVD-Video (mozgkpek trolsra); DVD-Audio (hang trolsra) DVD-ROM (adat, prselt, csak olvashat): sokoldal digitlis ROM lemez, a CD-ROM nagykapacits utdja, legalbb 4,7 GB trterlettel. Az alkalmazsok kztt els helyen szerepel digitlis vide-llomnyok (filmek) trolsa. Elre megrtak, teht hzi rsuk nem lehetsges. Vannak ktrteg lemezek, ezek kb. 8,5 GB adatot tartalmaznak. DVD-RAM (adat, kzvetlen elrs, tbbszr rhat). A DVD-RAM picit kilg a sorbl. Kln trolja van, mely miatt termszetesen mr az olvasshoz is msfajta eszkz kell, mint a tbbihez. Befogadkpessge 4,7 GB oldalanknt. 27. bra: DVD-RAM, mely felismerhet kockssgrl A DVD-R s +R lemezeket egyszer lehet csak rni, mg a -RW s +RW lemezek tbbszr rhatk. Lteztek Mini DVD+R lemezek (80 mm-esek), melyek kapacitsa 1,5 GB krl van. 28. bra: DVD-R s DVD-RW lemez A DVD lemezek kapacitsa az oldalak s rtegek szmtl fgg. A DVD lemezeknek ngy alaptpust klnbztetjk meg: DVD5: a legegyszerbb DVD lemeztpus; egyoldalas, egyrteg lemez, kapacitsa 4,7GB. DVD9: egyoldalas, ktrteg lemez; kapacitsa 8,5 GB. A ktrteg lemezek rdekes tulajdonsga, hogy mg az els rteg beolvassa a forgstengelytl kezddik, s az olvasfej kifel halad, a msodik rteg mindkt irnyban olvashat, azaz a msodik rteg kvlrl befel is tartalmazhat adatot. DVD10: ktoldalas, oldalanknt egy rteg DVD lemez, a kapacitsa 9,4 GB. Kapacitsa pontosan ktszerese a DVD5 lemez kapacitsnak. DVD18: a ktoldalas, oldalanknt ktrteg DVD lemez, a kapacitsa 17 GB. Mkdsi elve hasonl a DVD9 lemezekhez, azonban itt a lemez mindkt oldaln kialaktjk a kt-kt adathordoz rteget. [14] Egy kznsges DVD lettartama, j tartsi krlmnyek kzt 10-15 v. rdemes fnytl vdett, hvs, pramentes helyen tartani ket. Lteznek archivlsi minsg DVD-k, ezek lettartama hosszabb (100 v). ruk a norml DVD tbbszrse (5-/6X6-szorosa). 3.3.3 HD DVD s Blu-ray Tovbbi elrelps az adatsrsg nvelsben a HD DVD s a Blu-ray lemezek. HD DVD HD DVD lemez akr hrom rtegbl is llhat. Minden egyes rteg 15 GB mennyisg nagy felbonts tartalom trolsra kpes, gy a HD DVD lemezek maximlis kapacitsa 45 GB. A HD DVD lemezek karcllak. Visszamenlegesen kompatibilisek a DVD lemezekkel, gy a DVD lemezeken trolt tartalmak tovbbra is lejtszhatk a HD DVD-lejtszkkal. A DVD technolgihoz hasonlan a HD DVD az adatokat mikroszkopikus mret lyukak sorozataknt trolja, melyek egy hossz spirl formjban helyezkednek el a lemezen. A vrs lzeres technolgin alapul DVD lemezekkel ellenttben a HD DVD lemezek kk lzeres technolgit alkalmaznak a nagyobb trkapacits rdekben. Rvidebb, 405 nanomteres hullmhossznak ksznheten ellenttben a DVD lemezek 650nanomteres hullmhosszval a kk lzeres technolgival nagyobb mennyisg adat trolhat a HD DVD lemezeken. [15] Blu-ray Egy jelenlegi, egyoldalas, hagyomnyos DVD 4,7 GB adatot kpes trolni, ami elegend egy tlagos 2 rs, norml felbonts filmnek s nhny extra adatnak. De egy nagy felbonts film, aminek sokkal tisztbb kpe van (HDTV High-Definition Television), mint egy DVD filmnek, krlbell 5-szr tbb hely kell, ezrt elengedhetetlen olyan lemezek gyrtsa, amin sokkal tbb adat fr el, mint egy DVD-n, ahogy a stdik is egyre-inkbb jobb minsgben gyrtjk a filmeket. Ahhoz, hogy a HDTV-rl felvegynk egy tbb, mint 2 rs msort, Blu-ray lemezt kell hasznlnunk. A BD az adatok rshoz s olvasshoz kk lzert hasznl, ellenttben a DVD-kkel, amik vrs lzert hasznlnak. A kk lzer rvidebb hullmhosszon mkdik, mint a vrs lzer. A kisebb fnynyalbbal pontosabban lehet fkuszlni, ami lehetv teszi, hogy olyan kis gdrcskbl (pits) is ki tudjuk olvasni az adatokat, amik csak 0,15 mikromter hosszak ez tbb, mint ktszer kisebb a DVD-n tallhat kis gdrkhz kpest. Ezen fell a Blu-ray lecskkentette a svok hvelykmrett. A kisebb gdrcskk, a kisebb fnysugr, s a rvidebb sv-hvelyk egyttesen azt eredmnyezte, hogy egy egyrteg Blu-ray lemezen tbb mint 25 GB informcit tudunk trolni, egy dupla rteg Blu-ray lemezen, pedig mintegy 50 GB-nyi adatot. [24] A Blu-ray Disc sokig formtumhborban llt a HD-DVD-vel. Ezalatt mindkt formtumnak krlbell ugyanannyi tmogatt sikerlt gyjtenie. A hbort vgl a Warner dnttte el, amikor 2008 elejn a cg feladta a HD-DVD-vel kapcsolatos terveit s llst foglalt a BD mellett. Ezutn a NetFlix s a BestBuy kereskedelmi ruhzlnc is kzlte, hogy kivonja a knlatbl a HD-DVD lemezeket. A formtum gyzelmhez valsznleg a Sony j jtkkonzoljnak (Playstation3) megjelense s sikere is hozzjrult. Ez a konzol beptetten tartalmaz Blu-ray meghajtt, mg a konkurens Microsoft XBox konzolja csak DVD meghajtt. A Toshiba 2008. februr 19-n bejelentette, hogy fokozatosan lelltja a HD-DVD lejtszk, felvevk fejlesztst, s gyrtst. gy a formtumhbor gyakorlatilag vget rt a Blu-ray Disc gyzelmvel. [16] 29. bra: HD-DVD s Blu-ray Disc 3.3.4 HVD holografikus troleszkz A holografikus adattrols szinte korltlan lehetsget nyjt a kapacits s az adattviteli sebessg tern. 2004-ben a technolgia fejlesztsben rintett szakemberek konferencija hrom klnbz holografikus adattrol kifejlesztsben llapodtak meg: a 200 GB trolkapacits Holographic Versatile Disc (HVD), a 100GB-os Read-only Holographic Versatile Disc (HVD), s a 30GB-os Holographic Versatile Card (HVC). Az InPhase els mkd, prototpusnak nevezhet meghajtja a 130 mm tmrj, teht a CD/DVD-nl valamivel nagyobb lemez segtsgvel 200 gigabjtnyi adatot kpes eltrolni 20 megabjt/s-os adattviteli sebessg mellett. Egy ilyen els genercis holografikus lemezen durvn 40 darab 4,7 gigabjtos DVD-lemeznek, illetve kzel 300 darab CD-nek megfelel digitlis anyag trolhat el. A holografikus adattrol eszkzkben az adatok rsa s olvassa az eddig alkalmazott optikai meghajtkkal ellenttben nem bitrl-bitre, sorban trtnik, hanem prhuzamosan. A klnleges technolgia segtsgvel egyetlen fnyvillans alatt bitek millii vndorolhatnak a lemezre, illetve olvass esetn a meghajt tmeneti memrijba. Az j optikai eljrssal kis helyen hatalmas mennyisg adat trolhat. Postablyeg mret helyen tbb tz gigabjtnyi adatot lehet rgzteni, mg egy bankkrtya mret, tltsz plasztiklap ksbb akr 20-50 gigabjt adatot is tartalmazhat. Az amerikai inPhase Technologies tervei szerint 2010-re a 130 mm-es lemez elkpzelhetetlenl sok adatot trolhat majd, megkzeltleg 1,6 terrabjtnyi kapacitssal rendelkezhet. Az j technolgival kszlt lemezeket 10 milli alkalommal lehet hasznlni, lettartamt pedig 50 vre becslik. A holografikus adattrolsi technolgia a jv egyik nagy grete egyelre csak a nagyobb, tehetsebb vllalatok szmra rhet el kereskedelmi forgalomban. [17] A mikro-holografikus troleszkzk s lemezek elrelthatan valamikor 2011-2012-ben kerlnek bemutatsra, s valsznleg csak nagy adattrolsi igny alkalmazsok, pldul orvosi intzmnyek adatkezelsre, esetleg filmstdik anyagainak trolsra alkalmazzk majd. 30. bra: Holografikus lemez 3.4 Flash alap trolk Napjainkban egyre nagyobb teret hdtanak a flash alap adattrolk. Ebbe a kategriba tartoznak a klnbz mret, tpus pendrive-ok, memriakrtyk, valamint az SSD-k. A flash memrik kis mret ltalban manyag tokban helyet kap rhat-olvashat, nem felejt, megmarad (non-volatile) ramkrk, vagyis tartalmukat ramellts nlkl is megrzik. Ilyen, flash alap memrikat hasznlnak pldul a digitlis fnykpezshez, MP3-llomnyok trolshoz. Tovbb a flash gyors olvass hozzfrsi idt biztost (50nS) br nem olyan gyorsat, mint a volatile, vagyis kikapcsols utn felejt RAM, DRAM vagy SDRAM memria, melyet f memriaknt hasznlnak pldul a PC-kben -, valamint, mivel nem tartalmaz mozg alkatrszt, jobban ellenll a mechanikai behatsoknak (pl. a rzkdsnak), mint a merevlemez. Ezekkel a tulajdonsgokkal magyarzhat a flash npszersge. Tovbbi elnye, hogy ha ezeket memriakrtyba csomagoljk, akkor majdnem elpusztthatatlan fizikailag, mivel ellenll a nagy nyomsnak, s a forr vznek is. A flash chipek gyrtsi technolgijn folyamatosan dolgoznak a gyrtk, ennek ksznheten a flash memriachipek kapacitsa fokozatosan n. Mr bemutattk a vilg els 25 nanomteres eljrssal kszl NAND flash lapkit, amelyeket idn nyrtl kezdenek tmegtermelsben is gyrtani. A bemutatott 64 Gb-es, azaz 8MB-os lapka valamelyest kisebb terletet foglal el, mint az elz genercis 4 GB-os, vagyis nagysgrendileg ugyanakkora gyrtsi kltsggel ktszer akkora memrit lesznek kpesek gyrtani pl. az SSD-k szmra. 3.4.1 Memriakrtyk Technolgiai szemszgbl alapveten ktfle memriakrtya ltezik: * flvezets (pl.: SmartMedia, Compact Flash) * mgneses (pl.: IBM Microdrive) 31. bra: 1 GB-os memriakrtya Mkdsi elve: A memriachip valjban EEPROM tpus memria. (EEPROM[8]:elektronikusan trlhet s programozhat, csak olvashat memria. Tartalma elektromossg segtsgvel jrarhat. Tipikus felhasznlsi terlete a mai BIOS-ok, s ilyen memria mkdik a jtkkonzolokban is.) A chip rcsos felpts, ahol az adott rcspontok reprezentljk a biteket. Egy-egy bitet a megfelel oszlop s sor metszeteknt rhetnk el. A sorok s oszlopok tallkozsnak helyn mindkt oldalon egy-egy tranzisztor lapul Az egyik tranzisztort vezrlkapunak, a msikat pedig kvetnek nevezik. A kvetkaput megtestest tranzisztor csak a vezrlkapun keresztl kapcsoldik a sorokhoz. A kt tranzisztor kztt egy nagyon vkony oxidrteg hzdik. Amg a kt tranzisztor kztti oxidrteg semleges tlts (teht a kapu nyitva van), a tranzisztorok kztt sszekttets van, a krdses bit rtke 1. Ahhoz, hogy ez 0-ra vltozzon, a kvetkapu fel feszltsget kell kldeni a krdses bitet reprezentl oszlopon keresztl. A feszltsg hatsra a kvetkapu mintegy elektrongyknt kezd funkcionlni: az oxidrtegnek negatv tltsv teszi, s megszaktja a kapcsolatot a kt tranzisztor kztt. A megszakts annl hatsosabb, minl negatvabb az oxidrteg. Egy rzkel cella mri a kvetkapu s a vezrl kztt thalad tlts nagysgt. Ha ez az rtk 50% al cskken, az rzkel cella 0-t ad vissza a bit rtkeknt. A bitek visszavltoztatsa sem tl bonyolult: az egyes biteken keresztlmen ers tlts ugyanis jra teljesen kinyitja ket. A mvelet viszont elg lass a pozcionls miatt. A trls sebessgnek nvelse rdekben a flash lapkk esetben egyszerre egy blokk (esetleg az egsz adatterlet) trldik, majd a vezrlchip jrarja az elzleg trlt terletet. A flash-memrik kapui akkor is megrzik llapotukat, ha nincsenek feszltsg alatt, gy kivlan megfelelnek a cserlhet adathordozk cljainak. A memriakrtyk nagyon megbzhat krtyk, nagysgrendileg 1 milli rs mkdst garantlnak (a megbzhatatlanok persze jval kevesebbet). Ez nagyjbl 100 ves folyamatos hasznlatot jelent. [18] 3.4.2 Pendrive Amg ez meg nem jelent, semmi sem veszlyeztette a 3,5-es floppy meghajtt. Igaz egyre kevesebben hasznltk, de a gpek tbbsge mg tartalmazta. Egy levelet, kpet, kisebb fjlokat knnyen r lehetett tenni, s mentsknt eltenni, vagy tvinni egy msik gpre. Mkdsi elve megegyezik a winchestervel. Nos, gy nz ki, ennek vge. A pendrive kisebb fizikai mret, gyorsabban csatlakoztathat, csak egy USB port kell hozz, s kapacitsa is sokkal nagyobb, 64 MB-tl 128 GB-ig terjedhet, m tavaly, 2009-ben megjelent a Kingston Technology ltal a 256GB-os DataTraveler 300. lettartamuk 10 v, s ez alatt egymilli rst, s trlst brnak ki (tbb gyrt is 10 v garancit ad termkhez). tviteli sebessgk 1Mbit/sec, de USB 2.0-val 3 Mbit/secakr 20MB/s is lehet az rsi s az olvassi mveleteknl egyarnt [https://www.hardver-teszt.hu/news.php?newsID=463], de ltezik 30MB/s feletti sebessg meghajtk az olvassi mveletek tekintetben, viszont ezeknl a meghajtknl az rsi mveletek sebessge csak 15MB/s krli.. Aki mr hasznlta, az tudja, hogy gyors, knyelmes, s minden rfr. Ez a floppy kegyelemdfse. Megszletsn mig vitatkoznak, mivel kifejlesztsnek elssgt tbb cg is magnak ignyli. Mindenesetre 1999-nl nem elbb, s 2000-nl nem ksbb szletett. [19] A pendrive (USB-flash-trol) egy USB-csatlakozval egybeptett flash memria. nllan nem kpesek adatcserre, csak szemlyi szmtgpre csatlakoztatott llapotban, arrl vezrelve. nll ramforrsuk csak akkor van, ha egyb szolgltatssal is rendelkeznek, pldul MP3-zenelejtszs, diktafon funkci. A pendrive egy parnyi nyomtatott ramkrt tartalmaz, a rerstett fmcsatlakozval, ltalban egy manyag tokba tve. A tokozsa a felhasznli ignyektl fggen vltozatos: van por s cseppll kivitele, s kiemelten tsll kivitele is. Mg a krtykat jellemzen fnykpezgpben hasznljk, addig a Pendrive-ot a szmtgp USB csatlakoz portjra helyezve mindenfle adatok trolsra, s azok mozgatsra. Elnyei: kis mret, nagy kapacits, hordozhatsg, ellenllsg kls hatsokkal szemben. 32. bra: Pendrive 3.4.3 SSD gy tnik, a winchester egyeduralma is a mlt, ugyanis megjelent az SSD. Ennek kifejlesztsekor a cl a winchesterek htrnyainak kikszblse volt. Hogy mik ezek? Elg nagy mret s sly, a mechanika miatti srlkenysg, rzkenysg a rzkdsra, valamint az adatkezels lasssga. SSD: Solid State Disk vagy Drive, magyarul flvezetalap, mozg alkatrszek nlkli adattrol, amely merevlemezknt csatlakoztathat a szmtgpekhez. Azrt flvezetalap, mert belsejben nem korongok, hanem memriachipek tallhatk. Ktfajta SSD-t klnbztethetnk meg: a DRAM- s a flash-alapt. A flash-alap nem felejt, a DRAM-alap tulajdonkppen megegyezik a gp memrijval, amelyrl tudjuk, hogy csak ram alatt rzi meg az adatokat Az ilyen tpus SSD-k ezrt kln akkumultorral kszlnek. A flash technolgia miatt az adatok elrsekor nem kell szmolnunk a fizikai alkatrszek mozgatsbl add sebessgcskkenssel, azok kopsval vagy meghibsodsval, a rzkds, vagy egyb fizikai behatsok ltal okozott krokkal, nem is beszlve az energia-megtakarts s a zaj krdseirl. [26] Az SSD gyakorlatilag megegyezik a flashmemria-alap SSD-vel. Az SSD-k idvel tvehetik a vezet szerepet a htkznapi adattrolsban, hiszen csendesebbek, gyorsabbak, strapabrbbak, s kevsb energiaignyesek, mint a hagyomnyos HDD-k. Az lettartam is fontos krds az SSD-kkel kapcsolatban. Az jabb SSD-k vrhat lettartama kezdi megkzelteni a hagyomnyos merevlemezekt. rdemes megemlteni, hogy van olyan gyrt, amely egyes SSD-ire mr 5 v garancit vllal. sszefoglalva: Elnyk: * Gyorsasg. (nincs felprgs) * Mechanikailag megbzhatsg (kpes elviselni az tst, vibrcit, nyomst, hmrskletet) * A fjlok tredezettsge nem lasstja a mkdst. * Zajmentes (nincsenek mozg alkatrszek s htventilltor) * Nem Kevsb melegszik (a tesztek [] alapjn nem egyrtelm) * Kis sly, s kis mret * Kis fogyaszts (a mobil merevlemezekhez viszonytva elhanyagolhat az elny). Htrnyok: * Drgk. Egyelre az r/trolkapacits arnyuk rosszabb a HDD-knl. * Kis kapacits. * lettartam. A flash memrik lettartama egyelre gyengbb a merevlemezeknl. * Az rs lasssga. Ez is csak a flash memriknl jelentkezik, hogy lassabban rhatk, mint a HDD-k. A DRAM-os megolds gyorsabb. * Fokozottan rzkeny a hirtelen ramkimaradsra, a mgneses s elektromos mezkre. Mindezekbl lthat, hogy a winchesterek mg versenyben vannak, de ersen vesztsre llnak. A kis mret, kis sly, kis fogyaszts nagyon kvnatoss teszi az SSD-ket, fleg a hordozhat gpek szempontjbl, s biztos, hogy a nagyobb gpek is csak keveset vrnak, hogy a htrnyokat cskkentse a technika fejldse. [20] 33. bra: 64 GB-os Samsung SSD 4 A TROLKAPACITS NVEKEDSE A szmtstechnika vilgnak dinamikus fejldse a httrtrakra is jellemz. A gyrtk szinte naponta dobjk piacra a httrtrak jabb s jabb tpusait, illetve teljesen j rendszer troleszkzeiket. A httrtrak kapacitsa s sebessge egyre n, mikzben ruk folyamatosan cskken. A kvetkez tblzat a klnbz httrtrolk kapacits-nvekedst mutatja be. Az els adattrolk (lyukkrtya, lyukszalag) nagyon primitvnek szmtottak a mai technikai vvmnyokhoz kpest, igaz valahol el kellett kezdeni. Az akkori kornak ez volt elrhet kzelsgben. A fejlds ms ipargakhoz kpest nagyon gyorsan trtnt, hatalmas lpsek vannak az jabbnl jabb adattrolk kztt. Amg az autiparban 5-10 vnek is el kell telnie, hogy valami maradandt alkosson, addig a szmtstechnikban 1-2 v elegend ehhez. A tblzatbl lthat, hogy els adattrolk krtyk, illetve szalagok voltak. Idvel megjelentek a mgneses hajlkonylemezek, majd a merevlemezek, gy levltva az eddigi eszkzket. A rgi tallmnyok kzl jelenleg mg a mgnesszalagot hasznljk, mivel vllalati szinten ez a lehet legolcsbb s legpraktikusabb archivlsi, adattrolsi forma. A httrtrak kapacitsnak nvelsn folyamatosan dolgoznak a gyrtk. Az SSD-k kapacitsa pr ven bell elrheti a hagyomnyos HDD-k kapacitst, s akkor mr szinte minden tekintetben lekrzhetik ket. 1. tblzat: Trolkapacits-nvekedsi sszehasonlts a httrtrol tpusok kztt 5 A HOZZFRSI SEBESSG NVEKEDSE A merevlemezeken troljuk adataink tbbsgt, s jelenleg mg mindig ezek azok a httrtrak, amelyek a legmegbzhatbbak, legkompaktabbak, pontosabban: a kompaktsgra s megbzhatsgra es r nluk a legalacsonyabb (hiszen vehetnnk pp flash-krtyt is HDD helyett). Ugyanakkor a merevlemez vissza is foghatja egy korszerbb rendszer teljestmnyt, ha mr nem tudja megfelel sebessggel kielgteni a processzor ignyeit. Amikor valaki egy j merevlemez vsrlsn gondolkodik, a kiszemelt termk kapacitsn fell a sebessget, a megbzhatsgot s jabban egyre inkbb a zajszintet igyekszik szem eltt tartani. De mert a megbzhatsg mindig relatv, radsul mondhatni tesztelhetetlen, gy meg kell elgednnk a sebessg s a hangtnyez bemutatsval. No persze ez sem kevs. [27] A merevlemezt az egyre nagyobb kapacits, gyorsabb, s sokkal kevesebb fogyaszts flashmemrik szorthatjk ki, elszr a hordozhat szmtgpek, majd az asztali gpek terletn is. Az SSD legfbb elnye a sebessge, amely csak rszben ksznhet a mozg alkatrszek hinynak. Egy hagyomnyos merevlemeznl ktszer-hromszor is kpes gyorsabban olvasni, mg az rsi sebessge nagyjbl azonos egy jl fejlett merevlemezvel, vagy annl is gyorsabb. A NAND flash szilrdtest-meghajtk gyorsabb rendszerindtst tesznek lehetv, mint a merevlemezek, mivel nincs mozg alkatrszk, a lemeztnyroknak nem kell felprgnik, s a fejeknek sem kell bellniuk arra a pontra, ahol az adatok fizikailag elhelyezkednek a korongokon. Gyakorlatilag nincs, illetve alig van ksleltets az adatok olvassnak s rsnak a megkezdsnl, tovbb nincs jelentsge a tredezetten elhelyezked llomnyoknak sem. [28] A mgneses elven mkd merevlemezek vtizedek ta szolglnak a tarts (de nem felttlenl archv cl) adattrols elsdleges eszkzeiknt. Kialakultak a szabvnyok sebessgre, kapacitsra, csatolkra, a felhasznlk tudjk, hogy mit vrhatnak el az egyes eszkzktl. A b tvenves fejlds azonban nem tudott vlaszt adni tbb, jonnan felmerl problmra: a mretcskkensre, a hozzfrsi id lervidtsre, vagy az adattvitel sebessgnek nvelsre. Az SSD-knl nagysgrendekkel javult az adatok elrhetsge: a vletlenszer hozzfrs szzszor-ezerszer gyorsabb lehet, mint a merevlemezek. Az adattvitel sebessge is jcskn megntt: a merevlemezek 20-40 megabjt/msodperces rsi/olvassi sebessgvel szemben az SSD legalbb 200 megabjt/msodperces rsi s ennl ngyszer nagyobb olvassi sebessget knl, de elmletileg lehetsges a gigabjtos adattvitel is. 5.1 HDD s SSD sebessg tesztek 2. tblzat: SSD-k s HDD-k rsi, olvassi sebessgnek sszehasonltsa 3. tblzat: SSD tpusok maximlis rsi, olvassi sebessge 5.2 A Computer Klinika SSD tesztje A teszthez egy HP Compaq 6710b notebookot hasznltak. Intel Core 2 duo processzorral, 2GB RAM-mal s w 2k3 opercis rendszerrel: Az ssd ocz mrkj 64GB-os SSD eredmnyei: o ssd boot: 50sec o ssd hibernls: 23 sec o ssd hibernlsbl visszallts: 40 sec o msols helyben 1GB feletti llomny esetn: 20000 kilobyte/sec 45000 kilobyte/sec kztt A hdd egy hitachi 7200 fordulatszm(!) lemez: o hdd boot: 80 sec o hdd hibernls: 35 sec o hdd hibernlsbl vissza: 50 sec o msols helyben 1GB feletti llomny esetn: 7000 kilobyte/sec 17000 kilobyte/sec kztt, de inkbb az als vgn az intervallumnak. Azaz ugyan ezt az sszehasonltst egy norml 5400-as fordultaszm HDD-vel elvgezve az albbi eredmnyek vrhatak: o hdd boot: 106 sec o hdd hibernls: 47 sec o hdd hibernlsbl vissza: 67 sec o msols helyben 1GB feletti llomny esetn: 4500 kilobyte/sec 13000 kilobyte/sec Ez azrt fontos, mivel a jelenleg kaphat notebookok, netbookok tbbsgt 5400 fordulat/perc-es httrtrakkal ruljk. [29] [1] DAT: Digital Audio Tape, magyarul: Digitlis hang-kazetta [2] CD-ROM: Compact Disc Read Only Memory [3] rhat CD: CD Recordable [4] WORM: Write Once Read Many [5] jrarhat CD: CD Rewritable [6] CD-MO: Compact Disc Magneto-Optical [7] DVD: Digital Versatile Disc (digitlis sokoldal lemez), vagy Digital Video Disc [8] EEPROM: Electronically Erasable and Programmable ROM

The Culture of Ancient Egypt - 1112 Words

Language and System of writing The system of writing that the ancient Egyptians used is called Hieroglyphics coming from the two Greek words hieros meaning holy and glyphe meaning writing. Hieroglyphics are a series of pictures drawn from one side of the page to the other. Hieroglyphics can be read and written from left to right or right to left depending upon which way the human and animal characters are facing. If the characters face the left then you read from the left to the right. Each hieroglyph represents a single sound, but as the Egyptians wrote sentences and words they took advantage of the vowels so they are still trying to figure them out today. There are two basic types of hieroglyphs ideograms and phonograms. Often the†¦show more content†¦The Government in Ancient Egypt was ran on theocracy, which meant that there was a ruler who was recognized as deity. The pharaoh couldn’t run this all by himself so he had a hierarchy of rulers and leaders below him who ran different parts of the g overnment. This would mean that the pharaoh would command the hierarchy and they would fulfil their roles and jobs as priest, scribes, vizier etc. Reliable supply of food and water The Ancient Egyptians are indebted to the Nile River because it has supplied them with water and nutrients in the soil for them to grow the crops that they need to survive for many centuries. The predictability of the Nile’s flooding allowed the Egyptians to inquire deep into the agriculture of their land in order for them to grow all these crops such as the grains, fruits and vegetables that they used to eat. The Egyptian diet however revolved heavily around several primary crops, especial cereals and barley. The Egyptians would also grow Einkorn Emmer where grown to make bread. Pulses, beans, lentils, later chickpeas and fava beans were also grown. Root crop such as radishes, onions, and garlics were grown along with salad crops like lettuce and parsley. The Egyptians artwork motive was fruit, suggesting that this was also a major part of agricultural living. Rules and Laws The rules and laws of ancient Egyptians have been believed at the time to be based predominantly on common sense and whatShow MoreRelatedAncient Egyptian Culture : Ancient Egypt Essay2456 Words   |  10 PagesAncient Egyptian Culture Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. Ancient Egypt was among the earliest civilizations. It was rich in culture including government, religion, arts, and writing. For millennia, Egypt maintained a strikingly unique, complex and stable culture that influenced later cultures of Europe, the Middle East and Africa. Art ï‚ ® Much of the artwork created byRead MoreAncient Egypt And Ancient Egyptian Culture2322 Words   |  10 Pages The Egyptian culture has long been considered quite optimistic. It should be argued that of all ancient civilisations and cultures, the ancient Egyptian culture, is by far the most optimistic; in terms of everyday outlook on life, religion and death. The ancient Egyptian culture when compared to its nearby neighbours in the Levant and Mesopotamia is indeed optimistic. An examination of the environment of ancient Egypt affected daily life as this would in turn influence the culture, and whether orRead MoreAncient Egypt And The Egyptian Culture1752 Words   |  8 PagesAncient Egypt was a fascinating culture, and still seems to surprise the current generation with more discoveries coming out. And for historians the Egyptian culture has made it easier for scholars and historians to track their life and culture with all the evidence left behind. 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Many people go to Ancient Egypt because they know that there are geographical differences, mummies, pyramids, tombs and artifacts that seem foreign to many people living in the 21st century. In popular culture, Ancient Egypt seems like a lavish civilization in the middle of the desert . In many ways, the Ancient Egyptian culture draws in tourism for those who are curious about the Ancient Egyptian culture. They comeRead MoreWays Of Live Forever By Ancient Egypt And Greek Culture1579 Words   |  7 Pagesand many of them are vastly different. Ancient Egypt and Greece had. Egyptian and Greek culture both had vivid interpretations of immortality as seen through their literary writings and their treatment of everyday life, but both ideals are still expressed in present society. Slight overlaps are seen in Egyptian and Greek cultures in their views of life as a whole. However, when it came to the importance of life and what was required in life these cultures diverged drastically For the Egyptians

Change In Organizational Structure Of Pilkington †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Change In Organizational Structure Of Pilkington. Answer: Introduction Pilkington is a world-renowned glass manufacturer. It produces high-end products of glass with supreme quality and is famous for that reason. Use of glass has increased with themodernization of architecture. Buildings are covered with glass panes and all the windows are completely made of high-quality glass of different sizes, shades, and strength. It can be observed that the corporate culture of offices has promoted the use of glass in building construction both on the exterior side of the structure and mainly to decorate the interior. Pilkington is known to be going through a transition phase in its organization. Since it focuses on three domains which are corporate, building and automotive it has a lot of variations in its organization. Change in organizational structure of Pilkington has been in three phases (Solouki, 2017). The first phase was triggered by the change in Australian policy of wage.To implement these changes, second phase of change occurred. The third phase was to completely change the structure of the organization to adopt the changes made in the first and the second phase. In the following business report we will discuss and analyze some questions related to change in organizational structure of Pilkington. Factors that moved Pilkington towards change It was observed that during the decade of 1980 Pilkington enjoyed acomplete monopoly over the entire Australia in the business of glass and its products. It was the leading manufacturer and aced all its competitors. But with thepassage of time, Pilkington faced environmental changes and organizational changes both at the same time (Kim Zhong, 2017). These two factors collectively brought organizational change in the management of Pilkington (B.M. Keers, C. van FenemaZijm, 2017). To elaborate these changes, it can be said thatcompetition in international market triggered the need for a change. There was a rise in competition from countries like India, China and Germany got a chance to sell their products due to the reduction in import duties caused by General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade on a global level. Since the manufacturing cost of glass in these countrieswas less Pilkington had huge difficulty in matching the international price levels. Some internal reasons were also there w hich convinced the management of Pilkington to make changes in its organization (B.M. Keers, C. van FenemaZijm, 2017). Pilkington had a major part of its workforce to be in the age bracket of 45 to 50 years which is considered as old in the manufacturing business. These workers were used to traditional methods of expected overtime payment and easy going work methods. These overtime payments computed to be around 70% of the entire payroll in many of its departments. This was an added expense which Pilkington has to bear with not much output derived from it. Then Pilkington management thought this through that this kind of practice should not continue if they have to manufacture World class Glass. So these factors collectively demanded an organizational change. Phases of Change, Focus, Success factors Pilkington desired to change the entire organizational structure by redesigning theformal structure.This change was initiated by the flow of information in the management from lower levels to the upper executive level. The traditional method was that managers used to convey the information to their subordinates (Kim Zhong, 2017). Being a manufacturing unit, the input from shop floor to the higher management is more valuable and appropriate as they know each and every detail about the current issues which they face during production (Gerbec, 2017). This majorly reduced the conflict of opinion in the organization. There was aradical change in the process of production (Sarkar Osiyevskyy, 2017). Individual workers were replaced by ateam of employees who will be collectively responsible for the jobs they are assigned. This was done to enhance the participation among workers. The work done in the organization will not be monitored by individuals of the management but by the teams of worke rs and also by the team members themselves.Change in theinternational structure was doneto maintain the harmony in theworkforce of Pilkingtons organization. Programmed of training for the employees of Pilkington was arranged to make them learn new methods and technologies of manufacturing and make them multi-skilled.Lastly, theintroduction of new work practices to change the environment of the organization (Wadhwani, Galvez-Behar, MercelisGuagnini, 2017). Remuneration systemwas introduced to eradicate barriers and restrictions in the organization. The main focus of the Pilkington was to bring change in the international business structure to stay in the competitionin glass manufacturing.These changes made by Pilkington are the main reasons for the success of change in the organization. Organizational culture problems The problemin the organization of Pilkington is fundamentally related to the working culture. Another problem is about the structure of the organization. Since Pilkington was practicing the old and trusted hierarchal structure of a manufacturing organization in which the top management took all the big decisions (Wadhwani, Galvez-Behar, MercelisGuagnini, 2017). These pronouncements included the performance standards, targets of manufacturing, quality of the products and marketing strategy. These decisions were transferred from the top level of management to the lower ranks of officials who further channeled them towards the floor level workers. There was anonly downward flow of information and the communication was very limited. The lower rank employees who worked on real jobs of manufacturing felt that they are being instructed and theory inputs are of no use. It was not certain that the officials at the top management knew everything about the workings of shop floor and technical d etails of glass manufacturing. This gave rise to a conflict in the minds of workers and they believed the management to be autocratic. Moreover, manufacturing companies are prone to worker union versus management tussle which always exists at the lower levels of the organization. This type of mentality in the workforce tarnishes the efficiency of work among the employees and a sense of dissatisfaction always exists in their minds (Pdr, Pataki Sebestyn, 2017). Pilkington had an old aged workforce which was comfortable with the working methods which existed previously and were reluctant to change. This created a huge problem in organizational change and for modifying the structure of Pilkington management. Motivation Any organization grows by the dint of motivation among its workers. Pilkington has to go through the same process and believe in the same philosophy to implement the change in its organization successfully.Motivation is defined as the inner drive of an employee or the work of an external factor which makes him work more to benefit the organization and reward the worker as well (Sitzmann Bell, 2017). Motivation is a phenomenon by which any organization taken collectively gives reasons to its employees to work harder and to be more committed towards their work in the organization (Lin, Chen Su, 2017). In the case of Pilkington, the sense of motivation was missing and that too for bringing about a change in the organizational structure. Pilkington was willing to re-create its organizational structure which was only possible when the employees were willing to change their mentality and approach towards their work. Employees of Pilkington had a slow tendency towards work which procrastin ated the entire manufacturing procedure.Due to this sluggish working culture, the system of overtime payment existed (Pdr, Pataki Sebestyn, 2017). This system affected the revenue of Pilkington badly and a change was utterly needed. Pilkington had to pay them more money to get the same job done which was to be completed within the normal working hours. Many workers who were in a habit of taking overtime payment put pressure on the workers who resisted such a practice. The individual pressure was put to ignore the change management was willing to make as those employees were getting monetary benefits out of it. This proved to be a major hassle in context of motivating other employees to complete their work in time. Resistance to change As discussed above the workers of Pilkington did not want to bring about any change in the current working structure of the organization. They were very reluctant and tried a lot to maintain the status quo of Pilkington organizational structure. There are reasons to why employees of any organization resist change. The reasons justify their mentality and approach towards work commitment (Lee et al., 2017). These reasons are hindrances in smooth implementation of changes which Pilkington needs to overcome. Identification of reasons forresistance was done to find out some aspects such as: Things a change comprise of:Re-structuring the organization, consolidation of positions, firing workers, forfeiting the project and putting aholdon ongoing projects. Impact of change:Change effects the employees but it also modifies the position of stakeholders in the company (Lee, Sharif, Scandura Kim, 2017). The reshuffling of workers through projects can also happen. Fear of theunknown:When the change is implemented without giving ample time to the workers to think it through and adopt the changes this type of resistance occurs. Mistrust: If the lower level workforce does not trust the higher level officials then any changes made by the organization has to face a sense of mistrust (Queen Hess, 2017). Workers feel that these changes are made to harm them and to benefit the top level of management. Job Security:When an organization announces changes of downside nature it reflects that workers will be laid off from the companys payroll. The workers start feeling a threat to their job security and resist to the changes. Pilkington introduced the changes gradually keeping in mind all the possible reasons for resistance. The management also started employee training programs to upgrade the working skills of its workers so that they get motivated towards their job and try to be more committed towards their work (Queen Hess, 2017). Implementing Change Pilkington made changes in its organizational structure in the phases which took a duration of two years. This was the most strategic move to bring changes in its organization keeping all the factors of organizational change in mind (Reimer Houmanfar, 2017). The first phase started in the month of November 1994 in which Pilkington implemented a new configuration of information flow and process of production. It applied the bottom-up approach where the shop floor workers gave inputs to the top management about the changes necessary at the lower levels (Weick, 2017). The flow of communication was reversed which proved to be beneficial or Pilkington. Another change was in the process of production where teams were formed to perform certain tasks and collective responsibility was given rather than the previous method of individual jobs (Ma Kay, 2017). The second phase was implemented in November 1995 which was done to fine-tune the changes made in the first phase. Changing the structure of international business methods was done by Pilkington in the second phase. To maintain its stand in the international business Pilkington started employee training programs to equip workers with new skillset. Third and the last phase of change came about in December 1996. Pilkington was suffering from loss caused due to strikes. The reason ofstrike was due to the nature of changes Pilkington was going to make in its organization which included the fundamental change in theenvironmentof work and change in remuneration system. Conclusion Change in the structure of any organization is a challenging task.It becomes difficult to modify or to completely alter the pre-existing structure of an organization. But to maintain a positive growth rate and to thrive in the changing environment and culture of work on global level changes need to be implemented. Pilkington being a leading glass manufacturer has to undergo some changes in its organizational structure as the previous one was incurring aloss to its revenue. To go through the phase of organizational change and that too successfully Pilkington has to identify its requirements of change first and implement it slowly. There are many hindrances and restrictions which crop up once changes start to implement. Tackling these issues becomes a priority job for the organization as the entire change process depends on it. In the above report, all the details of organizational change specific to Pilkington have been discussed in details. Analysis of factors of change, phases of ch ange, therequirement of motivating the employees and reasons of resistance to change are done.It can be concluded that Pilkington has by far been successful in bringing the change in its organizational structure and maintain its position of leading glass manufacturer. References B.M. 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